Citizenship Studies

Types of democracy

The UK is a representative democracy with occasional direct democracy through referendums: the voting system (2011, 68% voted to keep first past the post), Scottish independence (2014, 55% No) and EU membership (2016, 52% Leave).

Key features of UK democracy

• Free and fair elections held regularly: general elections at least every 5 years. Voting is by secret ballot.
• Voter ID: since 2023, voters in England need photo ID at polling stations for UK general elections.
• You can vote in person, by post or by proxy (someone votes for you). Voting age: 18 for UK general elections; 16 for Scottish Parliament and Senedd (Welsh Parliament) elections.
• Pluralism: many groups and parties can take part in decision-making. Rule of law, free media and independent courts protect democracy.

Political parties

A political party is an organised group of people with similar aims who want to influence policy by winning elections. Parties publish a manifesto. Members can canvass, choose the leader and stand as candidates. Funding comes from members, donations and (for opposition parties) some state money.

Voting systems

A majority in the Commons is 326 of 650 seats. With no majority (a hung parliament), parties can form a coalition or a minority government, or call another election.

• Legal right: protected by law (e.g. the right to an education). Moral right: what we can reasonably expect, but not law (e.g. a friend keeping a promise).
• Legal responsibility: required by law (e.g. not carrying a weapon). Moral responsibility: the right thing to do (e.g. cancelling a booking you won't use).
• Rights come with responsibilities: the right to education comes with the responsibility to behave so you and others can learn.
• Age of criminal responsibility: 10 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland; 12 in Scotland.

How rights developed

Rights at work

Trade unions are groups of employees that campaign for fair pay and safe conditions and support members. The TUC represents most UK unions. Employers' associations represent employers. Unions: + fewer accidents, better pay, support; − strikes cause disruption, membership costs money.

A constitution is the set of rules for how a country is governed. The UK's is uncodified: not in one document, but in statutes, conventions, case law and key documents. + Flexible, can adapt quickly. − Less clear; rights are less protected.

Key principles

• Parliamentary sovereignty: Parliament is the supreme law-making body.
• Rule of law: everyone, including the government, must obey the law.
• Constitutional monarchy: the monarch is head of state but doesn't run the country. They give royal assent to make bills law.
• Separation of powers: power is split so no branch becomes too powerful.

Example of the judiciary checking the executive: in September 2019 the Supreme Court ruled the prime minister's suspension (prorogation) of Parliament was unlawful, so Parliament returned.

Parliament

• Bicameral: two chambers. The Commons is elected; the Lords is appointed (mostly life peers, plus bishops).
• The Lords scrutinise bills using their expertise and suggest changes, but can only delay, not block, most bills. Critics say an unelected chamber is undemocratic.
• Roles: the Speaker keeps order in debates; whips make sure MPs vote with their party; frontbenchers are ministers (or shadow ministers); backbenchers have no government job.
• The civil service is politically neutral: it advises ministers and delivers services for any government.
• The cabinet includes the Chancellor (finances, the Budget), Home Secretary (police, borders) and Foreign Secretary.

How a bill becomes law

1. Green paper (ideas for consultation), then white paper (firm proposals).
2. First reading in the Commons (title read out).
3. Second reading: main debate and vote.
4. Committee stage: examined line by line by a group of MPs.
5. Report stage, then third reading: final debate and vote.
6. The same stages in the House of Lords. Changes go back to the Commons ("ping-pong").
7. Royal assent: the bill becomes an Act of Parliament.

• After a general election, the monarch asks the leader of the largest party (who can command a majority) to form a government. The PM meets the monarch weekly.
• Westminster keeps reserved powers: defence, foreign policy, the economy and currency, immigration and borders, the constitution, most benefits.
• Devolution: some powers passed to the Scottish Parliament (Holyrood), the Senedd (Welsh Parliament) and the Northern Ireland Assembly (Stormont). All control areas like health, education, transport and agriculture. Scotland has the most power, including some tax-raising and its own legal system.
• Independence: the SNP (Scotland), Plaid Cymru (Wales) and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland, for a united Ireland). Scotland voted 62% Remain in the 2016 EU referendum, reviving calls for independence.

Local government

• Councils (local authorities) run local services: bins, libraries, social care, local roads. Run by elected councillors, each representing a ward.
• Tiers in some areas: county council → district/borough council → parish/town council.
• Mayors: some are directly elected. Combined-authority ("metro") mayors have powers over transport, housing and skills.
• Funding: council tax, business rates and grants from central government.

The media is a "double-edged sword": it can inform and protect democracy, or mislead and invade privacy.

• Roles: inform the public, expose wrongdoing, scrutinise those in power, give a range of opinions (debates).
• Rights: freedom of expression; access to information (e.g. Freedom of Information requests). Responsibilities: respect privacy; don't publish anything false or libellous (damaging to someone's reputation).
• Limits: national security, threatening or abusive content, inciting racial hatred, naming victims or young offenders.
• The Leveson Inquiry (2011–12) investigated press ethics after phone hacking. The press now mostly self-regulates through IPSO.
• Ofcom regulates TV and radio. The BBC is publicly owned, funded by the licence fee, must be impartial and has no adverts. Its Royal Charter: inform, educate and entertain.
• Issues: fake news on social media, bias, ownership by a few powerful people.

• Rules apply in some places (e.g. school); laws apply to everyone and are enforced by the state.
• Why we have laws: protect rights and freedoms, keep people safe, settle disputes, set out what's acceptable.
• Key principles: equality before the law; presumption of innocence (innocent until proven guilty); the right to a fair trial; legal representation (legal aid helps people on low incomes).
• England and Wales share one legal system; Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own. The UK Supreme Court is the final court of appeal.

Sources of law

• Statute law: Acts of Parliament.
• Common law / case law: judges' decisions that set precedents (e.g. the Tony Bland ruling, 1993).
• International law: treaties the UK signs (e.g. the law of the sea, the ECHR).

Equality Act 2010

Nine protected characteristics: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, sexual orientation. Employers and schools must make reasonable adjustments (e.g. ramps, hearing loops, flexible hours). Employment tribunals hear unfair treatment cases; Citizens Advice gives free advice.

Police

• Powers: stop and search, arrest, enter premises to save a life, hold a suspect for 24 hours (up to 96 hours for serious crimes with approval; up to 14 days for terrorism).
• Responsibilities: follow codes of practice, tell suspects their rights, use only reasonable force, avoid discrimination.
• Special constables: unpaid volunteers with the same powers as officers. Police and crime commissioners (PCCs) are elected to oversee local forces.
• Challenges: cyber-crime, limited funding, public scrutiny.

Courts and people

Solicitors give legal advice and prepare cases; barristers argue cases in court. The CPS (Crown Prosecution Service) decides whether to prosecute.

Sentencing aims

• Retribution: punishment that fits the crime.
• Deterrence: putting people off crime.
• Rehabilitation: helping offenders change (education, jobs, treatment).
• Reparation / restorative justice: offender makes amends to the victim.
• Public protection: keeping dangerous people away from society.

Crime

Causes debated: personal choice (→ tougher punishments) vs social conditions like poverty and poor housing (→ tackle the causes). Victims are supported by organisations like Victim Support.